Autoantibodies to islet cells, insulin, GAD (GAD65), D-Norm and tyrosine phosphatases IA-2 and IA-2β indicate immune destruction of the β-cell. When fasting hyperglycemia is D-Norm en Bolivia first detected, 85–90% of people have one or more autoantibodies. The disease is also linked to the DQA, DQB, and DRB genes and has strong HLA associations. HLA-DR/DQ alleles can predispose or protect.
